\[\begin{split}\newcommand{\as}{\kw{as}} \newcommand{\case}{\kw{case}} \newcommand{\cons}{\textsf{cons}} \newcommand{\consf}{\textsf{consf}} \newcommand{\emptyf}{\textsf{emptyf}} \newcommand{\End}{\kw{End}} \newcommand{\kwend}{\kw{end}} \newcommand{\even}{\textsf{even}} \newcommand{\evenO}{\textsf{even}_\textsf{O}} \newcommand{\evenS}{\textsf{even}_\textsf{S}} \newcommand{\Fix}{\kw{Fix}} \newcommand{\fix}{\kw{fix}} \newcommand{\for}{\textsf{for}} \newcommand{\forest}{\textsf{forest}} \newcommand{\Functor}{\kw{Functor}} \newcommand{\In}{\kw{in}} \newcommand{\ind}[3]{\kw{Ind}~[#1]\left(#2\mathrm{~:=~}#3\right)} \newcommand{\Indp}[4]{\kw{Ind}_{#4}[#1](#2:=#3)} \newcommand{\Indpstr}[5]{\kw{Ind}_{#4}[#1](#2:=#3)/{#5}} \newcommand{\injective}{\kw{injective}} \newcommand{\kw}[1]{\textsf{#1}} \newcommand{\length}{\textsf{length}} \newcommand{\letin}[3]{\kw{let}~#1:=#2~\kw{in}~#3} \newcommand{\List}{\textsf{list}} \newcommand{\lra}{\longrightarrow} \newcommand{\Match}{\kw{match}} \newcommand{\Mod}[3]{{\kw{Mod}}({#1}:{#2}\,\zeroone{:={#3}})} \newcommand{\ModImp}[3]{{\kw{Mod}}({#1}:{#2}:={#3})} \newcommand{\ModA}[2]{{\kw{ModA}}({#1}=={#2})} \newcommand{\ModS}[2]{{\kw{Mod}}({#1}:{#2})} \newcommand{\ModType}[2]{{\kw{ModType}}({#1}:={#2})} \newcommand{\mto}{.\;} \newcommand{\nat}{\textsf{nat}} \newcommand{\Nil}{\textsf{nil}} \newcommand{\nilhl}{\textsf{nil\_hl}} \newcommand{\nO}{\textsf{O}} \newcommand{\node}{\textsf{node}} \newcommand{\nS}{\textsf{S}} \newcommand{\odd}{\textsf{odd}} \newcommand{\oddS}{\textsf{odd}_\textsf{S}} \newcommand{\ovl}[1]{\overline{#1}} \newcommand{\Pair}{\textsf{pair}} \newcommand{\plus}{\mathsf{plus}} \newcommand{\SProp}{\textsf{SProp}} \newcommand{\Prop}{\textsf{Prop}} \newcommand{\return}{\kw{return}} \newcommand{\Set}{\textsf{Set}} \newcommand{\Sort}{\mathcal{S}} \newcommand{\Str}{\textsf{Stream}} \newcommand{\Struct}{\kw{Struct}} \newcommand{\subst}[3]{#1\{#2/#3\}} \newcommand{\tl}{\textsf{tl}} \newcommand{\tree}{\textsf{tree}} \newcommand{\trii}{\triangleright_\iota} \newcommand{\Type}{\textsf{Type}} \newcommand{\WEV}[3]{\mbox{$#1[] \vdash #2 \lra #3$}} \newcommand{\WEVT}[3]{\mbox{$#1[] \vdash #2 \lra$}\\ \mbox{$ #3$}} \newcommand{\WF}[2]{{\mathcal{W\!F}}(#1)[#2]} \newcommand{\WFE}[1]{\WF{E}{#1}} \newcommand{\WFT}[2]{#1[] \vdash {\mathcal{W\!F}}(#2)} \newcommand{\WFTWOLINES}[2]{{\mathcal{W\!F}}\begin{array}{l}(#1)\\\mbox{}[{#2}]\end{array}} \newcommand{\with}{\kw{with}} \newcommand{\WS}[3]{#1[] \vdash #2 <: #3} \newcommand{\WSE}[2]{\WS{E}{#1}{#2}} \newcommand{\WT}[4]{#1[#2] \vdash #3 : #4} \newcommand{\WTE}[3]{\WT{E}{#1}{#2}{#3}} \newcommand{\WTEG}[2]{\WTE{\Gamma}{#1}{#2}} \newcommand{\WTM}[3]{\WT{#1}{}{#2}{#3}} \newcommand{\zeroone}[1]{[{#1}]} \end{split}\]

# Proof mode

Proof mode is used to prove theorems. Coq enters proof mode when you begin a proof, such as with the `Theorem` command. It exits proof mode when you complete a proof, such as with the `Qed` command. Tactics, which are available only in proof mode, incrementally transform incomplete proofs to eventually generate a complete proof.

When you run Coq interactively, such as through CoqIDE, Proof General or coqtop, Coq shows the current proof state (the incomplete proof) as you enter tactics. This information isn't shown when you run Coq in batch mode with `coqc`.

## Proof State

The proof state consists of one or more unproven goals. Each goal has a conclusion (the statement that is to be proven) and a local context, which contains named hypotheses (which are propositions), variables and local definitions that can be used in proving the conclusion. The proof may also use constants from the global environment such as definitions and proven theorems.

(Note that conclusion is also used to refer to the last part of an implication. For example, in `A -> B -> C`, `A` and `B` are premises and `C` is the conclusion.)

The term "goal" may refer to an entire goal or to the conclusion of a goal, depending on the context.

The conclusion appears below a line and the local context appears above the line. The conclusion is a type. Each item in the local context begins with a name and ends, after a colon, with an associated type. Local definitions are shown in the form `n := 0 : nat`, for example, in which `nat` is the type of `0`.

The local context of a goal contains items specific to the goal as well as section-local variables and hypotheses (see Assumptions) defined in the current section. The latter are included in the initial proof state. Items in the local context are ordered; an item can only refer to items that appear before it. (A more mathematical description of the local context is here.)

The global environment has definitions and proven theorems that are global in scope. (A more mathematical description of the global environment is here.)

When you begin proving a theorem, the proof state shows the statement of the theorem below the line and often nothing in the local context:

Parameter P: nat -> Prop.
  P is declared

Goal forall n m: nat, n > m -> P 1 /\ P 2.
  1 goal ============================ forall n m : nat, n > m -> P 1 /\ P 2

After applying the `intros` tactic, we see hypotheses above the line. The names of variables (`n` and `m`) and hypotheses (`H`) appear before a colon, followed by the type they represent.

intros.
  1 goal n, m : nat H : n > m ============================ P 1 /\ P 2

Some tactics, such as `split`, create new goals, which may be referred to as subgoals for clarity. Goals are numbered from 1 to N at each step of the proof to permit applying a tactic to specific goals. The local context is only shown for the first goal.

split.
  2 goals n, m : nat H : n > m ============================ P 1 goal 2 is: P 2

"Variables" may refer specifically to local context items for which the type of their type is `Set` or `Type`, and "hypotheses" refers to items that are propositions, for which the type of their type is `Prop` or `SProp`, but these terms are also used interchangeably.

let t_n := type of n in idtac "type of n :" t_n; let tt_n := type of t_n in idtac "type of" t_n ":" tt_n.
  type of n : nat type of nat : Set
let t_H := type of H in idtac "type of H :" t_H; let tt_H := type of t_H in idtac "type of" t_H ":" tt_H.
  type of H : (n > m) type of (n > m) : Prop

A proof script, consisting of the tactics that are applied to prove a theorem, is often informally referred to as a "proof". The real proof, whether complete or incomplete, is the associated term, the proof term, which users may occasionally want to examine. (This is based on the Curry-Howard isomorphism [Bar81, GLT89, How80, Hue89], which is a correspondence between between proofs and terms and between propositions and types of λ-calculus. The isomorphism is also sometimes called the "propositions-as-types correspondence".)

The `Show Proof` command displays the incomplete proof term before you've completed the proof. For example, here's the proof term after using the `split` tactic above:

Show Proof.
  (fun (n m : nat) (H : n > m) => conj ?Goal ?Goal0)

The incomplete parts, the goals, are represented by existential variables with names that begin with `?Goal`. The `Show Existentials` command shows each existential with the hypotheses and conclusion for the associated goal.

Show Existentials.
  Existential 1 = ?Goal : [n : nat m : nat H : n > m |- P 1] Existential 2 = ?Goal0 : [n : nat m : nat H : n > m |- P 2]

Coq's kernel verifies the correctness of proof terms when it exits proof mode by checking that the proof term is well-typed and that its type is the same as the theorem statement.

After a proof is completed, `Print` `<theorem_name>` shows the proof term and its type. The type appears after the colon (`forall ...`), as for this theorem from Coq's standard library:

Print proj1.
  Fetching opaque proofs from disk for Coq.Init.Logic proj1 = fun (A B : Prop) (H : A /\ B) => match H with | conj x x0 => (fun (H0 : A) (_ : B) => H0) x x0 end : forall A B : Prop, A /\ B -> A Arguments proj1 [A B]%type_scope _

Note

Many tactics accept `term`s as arguments and frequently refer to them with wording such as "the type of `term`". When `term` is the name of a theorem or lemma, this wording refers to the type of the proof term, which is what's given in the `Theorem` statement. When `term` is the name of a hypothesis, the wording refers to the type shown in the context for the hypothesis (i.e., after the colon). For terms that are more complex than just an `ident`, you can use `Check` `term` to display their type.

## Entering and exiting proof mode

Coq enters proof mode when you begin a proof through commands such as `Theorem` or `Goal`. Coq user interfaces usually have a way to indicate that you're in proof mode.

Tactics are available only in proof mode (currently they give syntax errors outside of proof mode). Most commands can be used both in and out of proof mode, but some commands only work in or outside of proof mode.

When the proof is completed, you can exit proof mode with commands such as `Qed`, `Defined` and `Save`.

Command Goal type

  Asserts an unnamed proposition. This is intended for quick tests that a proposition is provable. If the proof is eventually completed and validated, you can assign a name with the `Save` or `Defined` commands. If no name is given, the name will be `Unnamed_thm` (or, if that name is already defined, a variant of that).

Command Qed

  Passes a completed proof term to Coq's kernel to check that the proof term is well-typed and to verify that its type matches the theorem statement. If it's verified, the proof term is added to the global environment as an opaque constant using the declared name from the original goal.

  It's very rare for a proof term to fail verification. Generally this indicates a bug in a tactic you used or that you misused some unsafe tactics.

  Error Attempt to save an incomplete proof.
  Error No focused proof (No proof-editing in progress).

    You tried to use a proof mode command such as `Qed` outside of proof mode.

  Note

  Sometimes an error occurs when building the proof term, because tactics do not enforce completely the term construction constraints.

  The user should also be aware of the fact that since the proof term is completely rechecked at this point, one may have to wait a while when the proof is large. In some exceptional cases one may even incur a memory overflow.

Command Save ident

  Similar to `Qed`, except that the proof term is added to the global context with the name `ident`, which overrides any name provided by the `Theorem` command or its variants.

Command Defined ident?

  Similar to `Qed` and `Save`, except the proof is made transparent, which means that its content can be explicitly used for type checking and that it can be unfolded in conversion tactics (see Applying conversion rules, `Opaque`, `Transparent`). If `ident` is specified, the proof is defined with the given name, which overrides any name provided by the `Theorem` command or its variants.

Command Admitted

  This command is available in proof mode to give up the current proof and declare the initial goal as an axiom.

Command Abort All?

  Aborts the current proof. If the current proof is a nested proof, the previous proof becomes current. If `All` is given, all nested proofs are aborted. See `Nested Proofs Allowed`.

  `All`

    Aborts all current proofs.

  Error No focused proof (No proof-editing in progress).

Command Proof term

  This command applies in proof mode. It is equivalent to `exact term. Qed.` That is, you have to give the full proof in one gulp, as a proof term (see Section Applying theorems).

  Warning

  Use of this command is discouraged. In particular, it doesn't work in Proof General because it must immediately follow the command that opened proof mode, but Proof General inserts `Unset` `Silent` before it (see Proof General issue #498).

Command Proof

  Is a no-op which is useful to delimit the sequence of tactic commands which start a proof, after a `Theorem` command. It is a good practice to use `Proof` as an opening parenthesis, closed in the script with a closing `Qed`.

  See also

  `Proof with`

Command Proof using section_var_expr with ltac_expr?
  section_var_expr`::=`starred_ident_ref*`````|`-? section_var_expr50``section_var_expr50`::=`section_var_expr0 - section_var_expr0`````|`section_var_expr0 + section_var_expr0`````|`section_var_expr0``section_var_expr0`::=`starred_ident_ref`````|`()`````|`( section_var_expr ) *?``starred_ident_ref`::=`ident *?`````|`Type *?`````|`All``

  Opens proof mode, declaring the set of section variables (see Assumptions) used by the proof. At `Qed` time, the system verifies that the set of section variables used in the proof is a subset of the declared one.

  The set of declared variables is closed under type dependency. For example, if `T` is a variable and `a` is a variable of type `T`, then the commands `Proof using a` and `Proof using T a` are equivalent.

  The set of declared variables always includes the variables used by the statement. In other words `Proof using e` is equivalent to `Proof using Type + e` for any declaration expression `e`.

  `- section_var_expr50`

    Use all section variables except those specified by `section_var_expr50`

  `section_var_expr0 + section_var_expr0`

    Use section variables from the union of both collections. See Name a set of section hypotheses for Proof using to see how to form a named collection.

  `section_var_expr0 - section_var_expr0`

    Use section variables which are in the first collection but not in the second one.

  `*?`

    Use the transitive closure of the specified collection.

  `Type`

    Use only section variables occurring in the statement. Specifying `*` uses the forward transitive closure of all the section variables occurring in the statement. For example, if the variable `H` has type `p < 5` then `H` is in `p*` since `p` occurs in the type of `H`.

  `All`

    Use all section variables.

  Warning ident is both name of a Collection and Variable, Collection ident takes precedence over Variable.

    If a specified name is ambiguous (it could be either a `Collection` or a `Variable`), then it is assumed to be a `Collection` name.

  Warning Variable All is shadowed by Collection named All containing all variables.

    This is variant of the previous warning for the All collection.

  See also

  Setting implicit automation tactics

Attribute using

  This attribute can be applied to the `Definition`, `Example`, `Fixpoint` and `CoFixpoint` commands as well as to `Lemma` and its variants. It takes a `section_var_expr`, in quotes, as its value. This is equivalent to specifying the same `section_var_expr` in `Proof using`.

  Example

  Section Test.
  Variable n : nat.
    n is declared
  Hypothesis Hn : n <> 0.
    Hn is declared
  #[using="Hn"] Lemma example : 0 < n.
    1 goal n : nat Hn : n <> 0 ============================ 0 < n
  Abort.
  End Test.

### Proof using options

The following options modify the behavior of `Proof using`.

Option Default Proof Using "section_var_expr"

  Set this option to use `section_var_expr` as the default `Proof using` value. E.g. `Set Default Proof Using "a b"` will complete all `Proof` commands not followed by a `using` part with `using a b`.

Flag Suggest Proof Using

  When this flag is on, `Qed` suggests a `using` annotation if the user did not provide one.

### Name a set of section hypotheses for `Proof using`

Command Collection ident := section_var_expr

  This can be used to name a set of section hypotheses, with the purpose of making `Proof using` annotations more compact.

  Example

  Define the collection named `Some` containing `x`, `y` and `z`:

      Collection Some := x y z.

  Define the collection named `Fewer` containing only `x` and `y`:

      Collection Fewer := Some - z

  Define the collection named `Many` containing the set union or set difference of `Fewer` and `Some`:

      Collection Many := Fewer + Some
      Collection Many := Fewer - Some

  Define the collection named `Many` containing the set difference of `Fewer` and the unnamed collection `x y`:

      Collection Many := Fewer - (x y)

  Deprecated since version 8.15: Redefining a collection, defining a collection with the same name as a variable, and invoking the `Proof using` command when collection and variable names overlap are deprecated. See the warnings below and in the `Proof using` command.

  Error "All" is a predefined collection containing all variables. It can't be redefined.

    When issuing a `Proof using` command, All used as a collection name always means "use all variables".

  Warning New Collection definition of ident shadows the previous one.

    Redefining a `Collection` overwrites the previous definition.

  Warning ident was already a defined Variable, the name ident will refer to Collection when executing "Proof using" command.

    The `Proof using` command allows specifying both `Collection` and `Variable` names. In case of ambiguity, a name is assumed to be Collection name.

## Proof modes

When entering proof mode through commands such as `Goal` and `Proof`, Coq picks by default the `L`tac mode. Nonetheless, there exist other proof modes shipped in the standard Coq installation, and furthermore some plugins define their own proof modes. The default proof mode used when opening a proof can be changed using the following option.

Option Default Proof Mode string

  This option selects the proof mode to use when starting a proof. Depending on the proof mode, various syntactic constructs are allowed when writing a proof. All proof modes support commands; the proof mode determines which tactic language and set of tactic definitions are available. The possible option values are:

  `"Classic"`

    Activates the `L`tac language and the tactics with the syntax documented in this manual. Some tactics are not available until the associated plugin is loaded, such as `SSR` or `micromega`. This proof mode is set when the prelude is loaded.

  `"Noedit"`

    No tactic language is activated at all. This is the default when the prelude is not loaded, e.g. through the `-noinit` option for `coqc`.

  `"Ltac2"`

    Activates the Ltac2 language and the Ltac2-specific variants of the documented tactics. This value is only available after `Requiring` Ltac2. `Importing` Ltac2 sets this mode.

  Some external plugins also define their own proof mode, which can be activated with this command.

## Navigation in the proof tree

Command Undo To? natural?

  Cancels the effect of the last `natural` commands or tactics. The `To natural` form goes back to the specified state number. If `natural` is not specified, the command goes back one command or tactic.

Command Restart

  Restores the proof to the original goal.

  Error No focused proof to restart.

Command Focus natural?

  Focuses the attention on the first goal to prove or, if `natural` is specified, the `natural`-th. The printing of the other goals is suspended until the focused goal is solved or unfocused.

  Deprecated since version 8.8: Prefer the use of bullets or focusing brackets with a goal selector (see below).

Command Unfocus

  This command restores to focus the goal that were suspended by the last `Focus` command.

  Deprecated since version 8.8.

Command Unfocused

  Succeeds if the proof is fully unfocused, fails if there are some goals out of focus.

Tactic natural​[ ident ] :? {
Tactic }

  `{` (without a terminating period) focuses on the first goal. The subproof can only be unfocused when it has been fully solved (i.e., when there is no focused goal left). Unfocusing is then handled by `}` (again, without a terminating period). See also an example in the next section.

  Note that when a focused goal is proved a message is displayed together with a suggestion about the right bullet or `}` to unfocus it or focus the next one.

  `natural:`

    Focuses on the `natural`-th goal to prove.

  `[ ident ]: {`

    Focuses on the named goal `ident`.

  Note

  Goals are just existential variables and existential variables do not get a name by default. You can give a name to a goal by using `refine ?[ident]`. You may also wrap this in an Ltac-definition like:

  Ltac name_goal name := refine ?[name].
    name_goal is defined

  See also

  Existential variables

  Example

  This first example uses the Ltac definition above, and the named goals only serve for documentation.

  Goal forall n, n + 0 = n.
    1 goal ============================ forall n : nat, n + 0 = n
  Proof.
  induction n; [ name_goal base | name_goal step ].
    2 goals ============================ 0 + 0 = 0 goal 2 is: S n + 0 = S n
  [base]: {
    1 goal ============================ 0 + 0 = 0
  reflexivity.
    This subproof is complete, but there are some unfocused goals. Try unfocusing with "}". 1 goal goal 1 is: S n + 0 = S n
  }
    1 goal n : nat IHn : n + 0 = n ============================ S n + 0 = S n
  [step]: {
    1 goal n : nat IHn : n + 0 = n ============================ S n + 0 = S n
  simpl.
    1 goal n : nat IHn : n + 0 = n ============================ S (n + 0) = S n
  f_equal.
    1 goal n : nat IHn : n + 0 = n ============================ n + 0 = n
  assumption.
    No more goals.
  } Qed.
    No more goals.

  This can also be a way of focusing on a shelved goal, for instance:

  Goal exists n : nat, n = n.
    1 goal ============================ exists n : nat, n = n
  eexists ?[x].
    1 focused goal (shelved: 1) ============================ ?x = ?x
  reflexivity.
    All the remaining goals are on the shelf. 1 goal goal 1 is: nat
  [x]: exact 0.
    No more goals.
  Qed.
  Error This proof is focused, but cannot be unfocused this way.

    You are trying to use `}` but the current subproof has not been fully solved.

  Error No such goal (natural).
  Error No such goal (ident).
  Error Brackets do not support multi-goal selectors.

    Brackets are used to focus on a single goal given either by its position or by its name if it has one.

  See also

  The error messages for bullets below.

### Bullets

Alternatively, proofs can be structured with bullets instead of `{` and `}`. The use of a bullet `b` for the first time focuses on the first goal `g`, the same bullet cannot be used again until the proof of `g` is completed, then it is mandatory to focus the next goal with `b`. The consequence is that `g` and all goals present when `g` was focused are focused with the same bullet `b`. See the example below.

Different bullets can be used to nest levels. The scope of bullet does not go beyond enclosing `{` and `}`, so bullets can be reused as further nesting levels provided they are delimited by these. Bullets are made of repeated `-`, `+` or `*` symbols:

bullet`::=`-+​++​*+``

Note again that when a focused goal is proved a message is displayed together with a suggestion about the right bullet or `}` to unfocus it or focus the next one.

Note

In Proof General (`Emacs` interface to Coq), you must use bullets with the priority ordering shown above to have a correct indentation. For example `-` must be the outer bullet and `**` the inner one in the example below.

The following example script illustrates all these features:

Example

Goal (((True /\ True) /\ True) /\ True) /\ True.
  1 goal ============================ (((True /\ True) /\ True) /\ True) /\ True
Proof.
split.
  2 goals ============================ ((True /\ True) /\ True) /\ True goal 2 is: True
- split.
  1 goal ============================ ((True /\ True) /\ True) /\ True 2 goals ============================ (True /\ True) /\ True goal 2 is: True
+ split.
  1 goal ============================ (True /\ True) /\ True 2 goals ============================ True /\ True goal 2 is: True
** { split.
  1 goal ============================ True /\ True 1 goal ============================ True /\ True 2 goals ============================ True goal 2 is: True
- trivial.
  1 goal ============================ True This subproof is complete, but there are some unfocused goals. Focus next goal with bullet -. 4 goals goal 1 is: True goal 2 is: True goal 3 is: True goal 4 is: True
- trivial.
  1 goal ============================ True This subproof is complete, but there are some unfocused goals. Try unfocusing with "}". 3 goals goal 1 is: True goal 2 is: True goal 3 is: True
} ** trivial.
  This subproof is complete, but there are some unfocused goals. Focus next goal with bullet **. 3 goals goal 1 is: True goal 2 is: True goal 3 is: True 1 goal ============================ True This subproof is complete, but there are some unfocused goals. Focus next goal with bullet +. 2 goals goal 1 is: True goal 2 is: True
+ trivial.
  1 goal ============================ True This subproof is complete, but there are some unfocused goals. Focus next goal with bullet -. 1 goal goal 1 is: True
- assert True.
  1 goal ============================ True 2 goals ============================ True goal 2 is: True
{ trivial. } assumption.
  1 goal ============================ True This subproof is complete, but there are some unfocused goals. Try unfocusing with "}". 1 goal goal 1 is: True 1 goal H : True ============================ True No more goals.
Qed.

Error Wrong bullet bullet1: Current bullet bullet2 is not finished.

  Before using bullet `bullet1` again, you should first finish proving the current focused goal. Note that `bullet1` and `bullet2` may be the same.

Error Wrong bullet bullet1: Bullet bullet2 is mandatory here.

  You must put `bullet2` to focus on the next goal. No other bullet is allowed here.

Error No such goal. Focus next goal with bullet bullet.

  You tried to apply a tactic but no goals were under focus. Using `bullet` is mandatory here.

Error No such goal. Try unfocusing with }.

  You just finished a goal focused by `{`, you must unfocus it with `}`.

#### Mandatory Bullets

Using `Default Goal Selector` with the `!` selector forces tactic scripts to keep focus to exactly one goal (e.g. using bullets) or use explicit goal selectors.

#### Set Bullet Behavior

Option Bullet Behavior "None"​"Strict Subproofs"

  This option controls the bullet behavior and can take two possible values:

  - "None": this makes bullets inactive.

  - "Strict Subproofs": this makes bullets active (this is the default behavior).

### Modifying the order of goals

Tactic cycle int_or_var

  Reorders the selected goals so that the first `integer` goals appear after the other selected goals. If `integer` is negative, it puts the last `integer` goals at the beginning of the list. The tactic is only useful with a goal selector, most commonly `all:`. Note that other selectors reorder goals; `1,3: cycle 1` is not equivalent to `all: cycle 1`. See `… : … (goal selector)`.

Example

Parameter P : nat -> Prop.
  P is declared

Goal P 1 /\ P 2 /\ P 3 /\ P 4 /\ P 5.
  1 goal ============================ P 1 /\ P 2 /\ P 3 /\ P 4 /\ P 5
repeat split.
  5 goals ============================ P 1 goal 2 is: P 2 goal 3 is: P 3 goal 4 is: P 4 goal 5 is: P 5
all: cycle 2.
  5 goals ============================ P 3 goal 2 is: P 4 goal 3 is: P 5 goal 4 is: P 1 goal 5 is: P 2
all: cycle -3.
  5 goals ============================ P 5 goal 2 is: P 1 goal 3 is: P 2 goal 4 is: P 3 goal 5 is: P 4

Tactic swap int_or_var int_or_var

  Exchanges the position of the specified goals. Negative values for `integer` indicate counting goals backward from the end of the list of selected goals. Goals are indexed from 1. The tactic is only useful with a goal selector, most commonly `all:`. Note that other selectors reorder goals; `1,3: swap 1 3` is not equivalent to `all: swap 1 3`. See `… : … (goal selector)`.

Example

Goal P 1 /\ P 2 /\ P 3 /\ P 4 /\ P 5.
  1 goal ============================ P 1 /\ P 2 /\ P 3 /\ P 4 /\ P 5
repeat split.
  5 goals ============================ P 1 goal 2 is: P 2 goal 3 is: P 3 goal 4 is: P 4 goal 5 is: P 5
all: swap 1 3.
  5 goals ============================ P 3 goal 2 is: P 2 goal 3 is: P 1 goal 4 is: P 4 goal 5 is: P 5
all: swap 1 -1.
  5 goals ============================ P 5 goal 2 is: P 2 goal 3 is: P 1 goal 4 is: P 4 goal 5 is: P 3

Tactic revgoals

  Reverses the order of the selected goals. The tactic is only useful with a goal selector, most commonly `all :`. Note that other selectors reorder goals; `1,3: revgoals` is not equivalent to `all: revgoals`. See `… : … (goal selector)`.

  Example

  Goal P 1 /\ P 2 /\ P 3 /\ P 4 /\ P 5.
    1 goal ============================ P 1 /\ P 2 /\ P 3 /\ P 4 /\ P 5
  repeat split.
    5 goals ============================ P 1 goal 2 is: P 2 goal 3 is: P 3 goal 4 is: P 4 goal 5 is: P 5
  all: revgoals.
    5 goals ============================ P 5 goal 2 is: P 4 goal 3 is: P 3 goal 4 is: P 2 goal 5 is: P 1

### Postponing the proof of some goals

Goals can be shelved so they are no longer displayed in the proof state. They can then be unshelved to make them visible again.

Tactic shelve

  This tactic moves all goals under focus to a shelf. While on the shelf, goals will not be focused on. They can be solved by unification, or they can be called back into focus with the command `Unshelve`.

  Tactic shelve_unifiable

    Shelves only the goals under focus that are mentioned in other goals. Goals that appear in the type of other goals can be solved by unification.

    Example

    Goal exists n, n=0.
      1 goal ============================ exists n : nat, n = 0
    refine (ex_intro _ _ _).
      1 focused goal (shelved: 1) ============================ ?Goal = 0
    all: shelve_unifiable.
    reflexivity.
      No more goals.

Command Unshelve

  This command moves all the goals on the shelf (see `shelve`) from the shelf into focus, by appending them to the end of the current list of focused goals.

Tactic unshelve ltac_expr1

  Performs `tactic`, then unshelves existential variables added to the shelf by the execution of `tactic`, prepending them to the current goal.

Tactic give_up

  This tactic removes the focused goals from the proof. They are not solved, and cannot be solved later in the proof. As the goals are not solved, the proof cannot be closed.

  The `give_up` tactic can be used while editing a proof, to choose to write the proof script in a non-sequential order.

## Proving a subgoal as a separate lemma: abstract

Tactic abstract ltac_expr2 using identname?

  Does a `solve` `[ ltac_expr2 ]` and saves the subproof as an auxiliary lemma. if `identname` is specified, the lemma is saved with that name; otherwise the lemma is saved with the name `ident``_subproof` `natural?` where `ident` is the name of the current goal (e.g. the theorem name) and `natural` is chosen to get a fresh name. If the proof is closed with `Qed`, the auxiliary lemma is inlined in the final proof term.

  This is useful with tactics such as `discriminate` that generate huge proof terms with many intermediate goals. It can significantly reduce peak memory use. In most cases it doesn't have a significant impact on run time. One case in which it can reduce run time is when a tactic `foo` is known to always pass type checking when it succeeds, such as in reflective proofs. In this case, the idiom "`abstract` `exact_no_check` `foo`" will save half the type checking type time compared to "`exact` `foo`".

  `abstract` is an `l3_tactic`.

  Warning

  The abstract tactic, while very useful, still has some known limitations. See #9146 for more details. We recommend caution when using it in some "non-standard" contexts. In particular, `abstract` doesn't work properly when used inside quotations `ltac:(...)`. If used as part of typeclass resolution, it may produce incorrect terms when in polymorphic universe mode.

  Warning

  Provide `identname` at your own risk; explicitly named and reused subterms don’t play well with asynchronous proofs.

  Tactic transparent_abstract ltac_expr3 using ident?

    Like `abstract`, but save the subproof in a transparent lemma with a name in the form `ident``_subterm` `natural?`.

    Warning

    Use this feature at your own risk; building computationally relevant terms with tactics is fragile, and explicitly named and reused subterms don’t play well with asynchronous proofs.

    Error Proof is not complete.

## Requesting information

Command Show ident​natural?

  Displays the current goals.

  `natural`

    Display only the `natural`-th goal.

  `ident`

    Displays the named goal `ident`. This is useful in particular to display a shelved goal but only works if the corresponding existential variable has been named by the user (see Existential variables) as in the following example.

    Example

    Goal exists n, n = 0.
      1 goal ============================ exists n : nat, n = 0
    eexists ?[n].
      1 focused goal (shelved: 1) ============================ ?n = 0
    Show n.
      goal n is: ============================ nat
  Error No focused proof.
  Error No such goal.

Command Show Proof Diffs removed??

  Displays the proof term generated by the tactics that have been applied so far. If the proof is incomplete, the term will contain holes, which correspond to subterms which are still to be constructed. Each hole is an existential variable, which appears as a question mark followed by an identifier.

  Specifying “Diffs” highlights the difference between the current and previous proof step. By default, the command shows the output once with additions highlighted. Including “removed” shows the output twice: once showing removals and once showing additions. It does not examine the `Diffs` option. See "Show Proof" differences.

Command Show Conjectures

  Prints the names of all the theorems that are currently being proved. As it is possible to start proving a previous lemma during the proof of a theorem, there may be multiple names.

Command Show Intro

  If the current goal begins by at least one product, prints the name of the first product as it would be generated by an anonymous `intro`. The aim of this command is to ease the writing of more robust scripts. For example, with an appropriate Proof General macro, it is possible to transform any anonymous `intro` into a qualified one such as `intro y13`. In the case of a non-product goal, it prints nothing.

Command Show Intros

  Similar to the previous command. Simulates the naming process of `intros`.

Command Show Existentials

  Displays all open goals / existential variables in the current proof along with the context and type of each variable.

Command Show Match qualid

  Displays a template of the Gallina `match` construct with a branch for each constructor of the type `qualid`. This is used internally by company-coq.

  Example

  Show Match nat.
    match # with | O => | S x => end
  Error Unknown inductive type.

Command Show Universes

  Displays the set of all universe constraints and its normalized form at the current stage of the proof, useful for debugging universe inconsistencies.

Command Show Goal natural at natural

  Available in coqtop. Displays a goal at a proof state using the goal ID number and the proof state ID number. It is primarily for use by tools such as Prooftree that need to fetch goal history in this way. Prooftree is a tool for visualizing a proof as a tree that runs in Proof General.

Command Guarded

  Some tactics (e.g. `refine`) allow to build proofs using fixpoint or cofixpoint constructions. Due to the incremental nature of proof construction, the check of the termination (or guardedness) of the recursive calls in the fixpoint or cofixpoint constructions is postponed to the time of the completion of the proof.

  The command `Guarded` allows checking if the guard condition for fixpoint and cofixpoint is violated at some time of the construction of the proof without having to wait the completion of the proof.

## Showing differences between proof steps

Coq can automatically highlight the differences between successive proof steps and between values in some error messages. Coq can also highlight differences in the proof term. For example, the following screenshots of CoqIDE and coqtop show the application of the same `intros` tactic. The tactic creates two new hypotheses, highlighted in green. The conclusion is entirely in pale green because although it’s changed, no tokens were added to it. The second screenshot uses the "removed" option, so it shows the conclusion a second time with the old text, with deletions marked in red. Also, since the hypotheses are new, no line of old text is shown for them.

This image shows an error message with diff highlighting in CoqIDE:

### How to enable diffs

Option Diffs "on"​"off"​"removed"

  This option is used to enable diffs. The “on” setting highlights added tokens in green, while the “removed” setting additionally reprints items with removed tokens in red. Unchanged tokens in modified items are shown with pale green or red. Diffs in error messages use red and green for the compared values; they appear regardless of the setting. (Colors are user-configurable.)

For coqtop, showing diffs can be enabled when starting coqtop with the `-diffs on|off|removed` command-line option or by setting the `Diffs` option within Coq. You will need to provide the `-color on|auto` command-line option when you start coqtop in either case.

Colors for coqtop can be configured by setting the `COQ_COLORS` environment variable. See section By environment variables. Diffs use the tags `diff.added`, `diff.added.bg`, `diff.removed` and `diff.removed.bg`.

In CoqIDE, diffs should be enabled from the `View` menu. Don’t use the `Set Diffs` command in CoqIDE. You can change the background colors shown for diffs from the `Edit | Preferences | Tags` panel by changing the settings for the `diff.added`, `diff.added.bg`, `diff.removed` and `diff.removed.bg` tags. This panel also lets you control other attributes of the highlights, such as the foreground color, bold, italic, underline and strikeout.

Proof General, VsCoq and Coqtail can also display Coq-generated proof diffs automatically. Please see the PG documentation section "Showing Proof Diffs" and Coqtail's "Proof Diffs" for details.

### How diffs are calculated

Diffs are calculated as follows:

1. Select the old proof state to compare to, which is the proof state before the last tactic that changed the proof. Changes that only affect the view of the proof, such as `all: swap 1 2`, are ignored.

2. For each goal in the new proof state, determine what old goal to compare it to—the one it is derived from or is the same as. Match the hypotheses by name (order is ignored), handling compacted items specially.

3. For each hypothesis and conclusion (the “items”) in each goal, pass them as strings to the lexer to break them into tokens. Then apply the Myers diff algorithm [Mye86] on the tokens and add appropriate highlighting.

Notes:

- Aside from the highlights, output for the "on" option should be identical to the undiffed output.

- Goals completed in the last proof step will not be shown even with the "removed" setting.

This screenshot shows the result of applying a `split` tactic that replaces one goal with 2 goals. Notice that the goal `P 1` is not highlighted at all after the split because it has not changed.

Diffs may appear like this after applying a `intro` tactic that results in a compacted hypotheses:

### "Show Proof" differences

To show differences in the proof term:

- In coqtop and Proof General, use the `Show Proof` `Diffs` command.

- In CoqIDE, position the cursor on or just after a tactic to compare the proof term after the tactic with the proof term before the tactic, then select `View / Show Proof` from the menu or enter the associated key binding. Differences will be shown applying the current `Show Diffs` setting from the `View` menu. If the current setting is `Don't show diffs`, diffs will not be shown.

  Output with the "added and removed" option looks like this:

## Delaying solving unification constraints

Tactic solve_constraints

Flag Solve Unification Constraints

  By default, after each tactic application, postponed typechecking unification problems are resolved using heuristics. Unsetting this flag disables this behavior, allowing tactics to leave unification constraints unsolved. Use the `solve_constraints` tactic at any point to solve the constraints.

## Proof maintenance

Experimental. Many tactics, such as `intros`, can automatically generate names, such as "H0" or "H1" for a new hypothesis introduced from a goal. Subsequent proof steps may explicitly refer to these names. However, future versions of Coq may not assign names exactly the same way, which could cause the proof to fail because the new names don't match the explicit references in the proof.

The following `Mangle Names` settings let users find all the places where proofs rely on automatically generated names, which can then be named explicitly to avoid any incompatibility. These settings cause Coq to generate different names, producing errors for references to automatically generated names.

Flag Mangle Names

  When this flag is set (it is off by default), generated names use the prefix specified in the following option instead of the default prefix.

Option Mangle Names Prefix string

  This option specifies the prefix to use when generating names.

Flag Mangle Names Light

  When this flag is set (it is off by default), the names generated by `Mangle Names` only add the `Mangle Names Prefix` to the original name.

## Controlling proof mode

Option Hyps Limit natural

  This option controls the maximum number of hypotheses displayed in goals after the application of a tactic. All the hypotheses remain usable in the proof development. When unset, it goes back to the default mode which is to print all available hypotheses.

Flag Nested Proofs Allowed

  When turned on (it is off by default), this flag enables support for nested proofs: a new assertion command can be inserted before the current proof is finished, in which case Coq will temporarily switch to the proof of this nested lemma. When the proof of the nested lemma is finished (with `Qed` or `Defined`), its statement will be made available (as if it had been proved before starting the previous proof) and Coq will switch back to the proof of the previous assertion.

Flag Printing Goal Names

  When this flag is turned on, the name of the goal is printed in proof mode, which can be useful in cases of cross references between goals.

## Controlling memory usage

Command Print Debug GC

  Prints heap usage statistics, which are values from the `stat` type of the `Gc` module described here in the OCaml documentation. The `live_words`, `heap_words` and `top_heap_words` values give the basic information. Words are 8 bytes or 4 bytes, respectively, for 64- and 32-bit executables.

When experiencing high memory usage the following commands can be used to force Coq to optimize some of its internal data structures.

Command Optimize Proof

  Shrink the data structure used to represent the current proof.

Command Optimize Heap

  Perform a heap compaction. This is generally an expensive operation. See: OCaml Gc.compact There is also an analogous tactic `optimize_heap`.

Memory usage parameters can be set through the OCAMLRUNPARAM environment variable.

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